#304: China's Thorium Discovery
Everything about THORIUM & Critical Minerals for UPSC!
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Back story: It’s Sunday afternoon on March 02. I learnt about China’s discovery of large scale Thorium in the morning. I knew this is perfect news to spend Sunday on!
In this detailed post, I studied everything about Thorium, China, India & the world. Further, I dug deep into basics of critical minerals across the world.
Summarizing in this detailed post for UPSC aspirants to serve as a one stop resource:
What Is Thorium? (The Basics)
Discovered in 1828 by Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius. 3x times more common than Uranium!
Where’s it found?
In Monazite (phosphate rich in rare earths), thorite & thorianite
Indian beaches are loaded with Monazite (UPSC has a PYQ on it, remember?)
Global reserves: India has most Thorium! [China has 1/8th of India’s]
History & Science of Thorium (From Lanterns to Reactors)
Thorium was first used to lit up gas lamps as Thorium Oxide.
1898: Radioactivity was spotted by Marie Curie in 1898
1950s-60s: US tested nuclear reactors but Uranium won the battle
2020s: China fired up Thorium molten salt reactor in Gobi desert. The newly found Thorium reserves are from similar region.
On Science, you need to know that Thorium is not fissile but fertile.
i.e. it won’t split or release energy on its own but it can transform.
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China’s New Thorium Push (The Desert Experiment)
Chinese “new found thorium” is about action more than reserve.
At Bayan Obo, the Chinese rare-earth mining hub, Thorium is a byproduct.
Why now? China aims for carbon neutrality by 2060. Thorium could replace coal (60% of their energy) and cut uranium imports.
Geopolitical flex: Energy independence = less reliance on global markets. Plus, they’re eyeing thorium exports via the Belt and Road Initiative.
India’s Thorium Story (The Beach Goldmine)
Indian Thorium reserves sit as monazite sands along the coast of Andhra, Tamil Nadu & Odisha. It is ‘hidden jackpot’ more ‘cz India’s Uranium reserves are scanty!
Indian 3 stage nuclear plan (since 1950s)
Uranium reactors (current stage)
Fast breeder reactors (plutonium production)
Thorium Reactors (Advanced Heavy Water Reactor, AHWR, in development)
Progress: India’s tested thorium in small reactors (like Kalpakkam). Full-scale use? Still decades away due to tech and funding lag.
UPSC lens: GS-3 (Energy, Resources) and GS-2 (Policy)—India’s thorium focus is a long-term bet against resource scarcity.
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Politics and Geopolitics (The Power Game)
Thorium is slowly developing as a chess piece in global energy politics:
China: Leading the thorium race, reducing Western leverage (Uranium’s mostly from Australia, Canada)
India: A counterweight which is self-reliance could boost its global clout.
US & others: Lagging but watching. The US dropped thorium in the ‘60s for uranium (weapons priority); now, they’re quietly collaborating with China.
Geopolitical stakes: Whoever masters thorium could dominate clean energy markets, shifting alliances. For UPSC GS-2 (International Relations), link this to energy diplomacy.
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Social Impacts (Jobs vs. Fears)
Positive: In India, thorium mining (e.g., Kerala’s sands) could create jobs. In China, desert reactors mean rural development.
Negative: Radiation fears linger- thorium’s less risky than uranium, but communities near mines or plants might resist (think Kudankulam protests in India)
UPSC GS-1 (Society): Balance development vs. public perception—key for policy questions.
Technical Reasons (Why Thorium?)
Abundance: 3-4 times more than uranium.
Safety: MSRs run at low pressure, self-shut if overheated.
Waste: Less long-lived waste (300 years vs. 10,000 for uranium).
Challenge: Converting thorium to uranium-233 needs complex setups which are costly and unproven at scale.
Legal Repercussions (Rules of the Game)
International: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) doesn’t ban thorium, but uranium-233 (its product) is monitored. China and India (non-NPT) face fewer curbs
India: Atomic Energy Act, 1962, governs thorium mining putting tight control & slow approvals.
China: State-driven, fewer legal hurdles domestically.
GS-2 (Polity): Legal frameworks shape thorium’s pace; India’s red tape with China’s speed.
Renewable Implications (The Green Angle)
Thorium’s not renewable (it’s finite), but it’s a bridge:
Vs. Solar/Wind: Steady power, no weather dependence.
Vs. Uranium: Cleaner, more sustainable long-term.
India’s mix: Could complement renewables, cutting coal’s 60% share.
GS-3 (Environment): Thorium’s a low-carbon option which is a key for climate goals.
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Environmental Impacts (The Double-Edged Sword)
Pros: No CO2 from reactors, less waste than uranium.
Cons: Mining monazite stirs up radioactive dust (e.g., Kerala’s beaches). Processing needs care since chemicals can pollute if mishandled.
China: Desert sites limit exposure, but scaling up risks tailings.
Beyond: What You Might’ve Missed
Economics: Thorium’s costly to start (R&D, reactor design)—India’s budget struggles, China’s state cash flows easier.
Alternatives: Uranium (status quo), fusion (distant), renewables (intermittent).
Security: Thorium’s low weapon potential eases proliferation fears—big for GS-3 (Security).
Quick Mastery Recap
Thorium 101: Fertile metal, needs neutrons to become fuel.
China: Gobi reactor, Bayan Obo reserves; energy + geopolitics.
India: Monazite riches, three-stage plan; self-reliance.
Big Picture: Safer, cleaner, but tricky; reshapes power dynamics.
But wait, it’s not JUST THORIUM but Critical Minerals that you need to focus on
What Are Critical Minerals? (The Toolkit Analogy)
Easier analogy: see them like nut, bolt, wire of modern tech
Modern tech ceases to exist without them.
Examples: Lithium, cobalt, rare earth elements (REEs), graphite, nickel, titanium, tungsten, and more.
Why critical? They power batteries (electric vehicles), wind turbines, missiles, and chips.
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Key Critical Minerals (The Superstars)
Lithium (The Battery Fuel)
What: A soft metal for EV and phone batteries.
Where: Bolivia, Chile, Australia
India’s Play: Importing 54% from China but vulnerable.
China: Controls 60% of refining—battery kingpin
Cobalt (The Battery Booster)
What: Makes batteries last longer, used in EVs and jets.
Where: Congo (70% of supply), Australia. India has traces (Rajasthan, Odisha).
India: Imports heavily posing a security risk.
China: Hoards supply chains via Congo deals.
Rare Earth Elements (The Tech Magnets)
What: 17 elements (e.g., neodymium, dysprosium) for magnets, screens, weapons.
Where: China (60% of production, Bayan Obo key), US, Australia. India: 2.8M tonnes in monazite (with thorium).
India: Mines monazite but lags in refining leading to exporting raw and importing finished REEs.
China: Dominates 90% of refining which chokes global supply.
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Graphite (The Battery Pencil)
What: Conducts electricity in batteries.
Where: China (65%), India (4th, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand)
India: Strong reserves (8M tonnes), but processing is weak
China: Export controls - leverage over EV boom
Titanium (The Tough Guy)
What: Light, strong leading to jets, ships, implants.
Where: Australia, South Africa. India: 3rd globally (413M tonnes, Kerala beaches).
India: Exports ore, not finished goods leading to missed value.
China: Ramping up use in military tech.
Tungsten (The Heat Shield)
What: Hard, heat-resistant makes up for bullets, drills.
Where: China (80%), Russia. India: tiny (Rajasthan).
India: Imports 90% leading to a defense bottleneck.
China: Weaponizes supply dominance.
History (From Mines to Tech Wars)
Thorium: Lamps (1800s), nuclear dreams (1950s), now China’s Gobi push.
Critical Minerals: Industrial Age (titanium, tungsten), tech boom (lithium, REEs post-2000s). China’s rare earth export curbs in 2010 woke the world up emphasizing that supply chains matter.
India: Colonial mining (thorium, titanium), post-1947 focus on self-reliance, but refining lags.
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Science (How They Work)
Thorium: Fertile, turns into uranium-233 in MSRs giving energy with less waste.
Lithium/Cobalt/Graphite: Battery trio that can store and conduct electricity.
REEs: Magnetic and conductive to be used in making motors hum, screens glow.
Titanium/Tungsten: Strength + heat resistance that’s built to last.
Politics & Geopolitics (The Tug-of-War)
China’s Edge: Controls REEs, cobalt refining, thorium tech which it uses to chokes rivals. Belt and Road ties resources to influence!
India’s Challenge: Rich in thorium, titanium, graphite, but imports lithium, cobalt, REE due to weak supply chain. Quad (India-US-Japan-Australia) aims to counter China.
Global Stakes: US sanctions, China’s export bans (e.g., gallium, 2023) which makes critical minerals serve as bargaining chips.
Social Impacts (Jobs vs. Risks)
Thorium: Mining (Kerala) creates jobs but sparks radiation fears—public protests possible.
Lithium/Cobalt: EV boom = jobs (India’s J&K), but mining disrupts tribal lands (Congo-like issues ahead?).
REEs: China’s Bayan Obo—jobs galore, but pollution hits locals.
Technical Reasons (Why They Matter)
Thorium: Abundant, safe, low-waste nuclear option anticipating it to be India’s future.
Lithium/Cobalt: EV revolution matching India’s 30% EV target by 2030 needs them.
REEs: Tech sovereignty since India’s chip dreams hinge here.
Titanium/Tungsten: Defense edge fulfilling self-reliance mantra.
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Legal Repercussions (Rules & Roads)
Thorium: India’s Atomic Energy Act puts tight control. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) watches uranium-233.
Critical Minerals: Mines and Minerals Act, 1957 (India) leads to slow reforms. WTO disputes over China’s export curbs.
India’s Policy: Critical Mineral Mission (2024 Budget) thus pushing for auctions, recycling.
Renewable Implications (Green Allies)
Thorium: Steady, low-carbon that can be paired with solar/wind’s intermittency.
Lithium/Graphite/Cobalt: Battery backbone as renewables need storage.
REEs: Wind turbine magnets enabling green tech.
India: Coal (60%) to clean—thorium + batteries = transition.
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Environmental Impacts (The Trade-Off)
Thorium: Mining dust (Kerala), but reactors cut CO2.
Lithium: Water-intensive mining putting J&K’s fragile ecology at risk.
REEs: Toxic sludge (China’s Bayan Obo) pushing India to refine cleanly.
Cobalt: Congo’s child labor, pollution putting key in ethical sourcing
Beyond: Economics & Security
Economics: Thorium’s R&D costly (India struggles); lithium/REEs pricey to refine which makes China a winner here.
Security: Thorium’s low weapon risk vs. REEs/tungsten in missiles putting dilemma of dual-use.
India’s Gap: Exports raw (thorium, titanium), imports tech leading to value loss.
Quick Mastery Recap
Thorium: India’s beach bounty, China’s desert reactors thus showcasing the clean power play.
Lithium/Cobalt/REEs: Battery/tech lifelines which China dominates, India scrambles.
Titanium/Tungsten: Defense muscle which is India’s untapped edge.
Big Picture: Resources = power. India’s diversification vs. China’s monopoly.
But hey, is it a big deal? NO!
Why? Read this tweet:
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